{"id":1503,"date":"2022-07-07T16:28:33","date_gmt":"2022-07-07T15:28:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sites.manchester.ac.uk\/japanese-childhood\/?page_id=1503"},"modified":"2022-07-25T11:27:48","modified_gmt":"2022-07-25T10:27:48","slug":"education","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sites.manchester.ac.uk\/japanese-childhood\/home\/home-en\/topics-2\/education\/","title":{"rendered":"Education"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section bb_built=”1″ admin_label=”section” fullwidth=”on” next_background_color=”#000000″ global_module=”322″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu global_parent=”322″ _builder_version=”3.0.106″ menu_id=”7″ submenu_direction=”downwards” fullwidth_menu=”off” background_layout=”dark” module_class=”main-navigation” \/][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section bb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”off” specialty=”off” transparent_background=”off” allow_player_pause=”off” inner_shadow=”off” parallax=”off” parallax_method=”on” make_fullwidth=”off” use_custom_width=”off” width_unit=”on” make_equal=”off” use_custom_gutter=”off” custom_padding=”0px||0px|” custom_css_main_element=”padding-top:0px” module_class=”header-image-section” prev_background_color=”#ffffff” next_background_color=”#ffffff”][et_pb_row allow_player_pause=”off” parallax=”off” parallax_method=”on” parallax_1=”off” parallax_method_1=”off” make_fullwidth=”off” use_custom_width=”off” width_unit=”on” use_custom_gutter=”off” make_equal=”off” custom_margin=”||0px|” custom_padding=”||0px|” module_class=”header-image” background_position=”top_left” background_repeat=”repeat” background_size=”initial”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″][et_pb_image show_in_lightbox=”off” url_new_window=”off” use_overlay=”off” align=”left” always_center_on_mobile=”on” use_border_color=”off” force_fullwidth=”off” custom_margin=”0px|||” animation_direction=”left” show_bottom_space=”off” border_color_all=”#ffffff” _builder_version=”3.17.6″ \/][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section bb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”off” specialty=”off” transparent_background=”off” allow_player_pause=”off” inner_shadow=”off” parallax=”off” parallax_method=”on” make_fullwidth=”off” use_custom_width=”off” width_unit=”on” make_equal=”off” use_custom_gutter=”off” custom_padding=”||0px|” prev_background_color=”#ffffff” next_background_color=”#ffffff”][et_pb_row allow_player_pause=”off” parallax=”off” parallax_method=”on” parallax_1=”off” parallax_method_1=”off” make_fullwidth=”off” use_custom_width=”off” width_unit=”on” use_custom_gutter=”off” make_equal=”off” custom_margin=”||0px|” custom_padding=”||0px|” module_class=”breadcrumbs-row” background_position=”top_left” background_repeat=”repeat” background_size=”initial”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″][et_pb_text admin_label=”Breadcrumbs (do not remove)” background_layout=”light” text_orientation=”left” use_border_color=”off” border_color=”#ffffff” border_style=”solid” module_class=”breadcrumbs” custom_css_main_element=”border-bottom: 1px solid #ececed;” module_alignment=”left” background_position=”top_left” background_repeat=”repeat” background_size=”initial”]<\/p>\nJapanese Childhood<\/a><\/span><\/span>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section bb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”off” specialty=”on” transparent_background=”off” allow_player_pause=”off” inner_shadow=”off” parallax=”off” parallax_method=”on” parallax_1=”off” parallax_method_1=”off” parallax_2=”off” parallax_method_2=”off” make_fullwidth=”off” use_custom_width=”off” width_unit=”on” make_equal=”off” use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ prev_background_color=”#ffffff” next_background_color=”#1d1d1d”][et_pb_column type=”1_3″][et_pb_sidebar admin_label=”Left Nav Sidebar” area=”et_pb_widget_area_1″ orientation=”left” remove_border=”on” background_layout=”light” module_id=”left-nav-menu” show_border=”off” \/][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”2_3″ specialty_columns=”2″][et_pb_row_inner admin_label=”Row”][et_pb_column_inner type=”4_4″ saved_specialty_column_type=”2_3″][et_pb_text admin_label=”Education Text” background_layout=”light” text_orientation=”left” use_border_color=”off” module_alignment=”left” background_position=”top_left” background_repeat=”repeat” background_size=”initial” _builder_version=”3.17.6″]<\/p>\n

Education in Japan, 1900-1945: An Overview<\/h1>\n

Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the new Meiji government set out Japan\u2019s first mass national education system in the Gakusei (Fundamental Code of Education) of 1872. However, actually implementing plans was more difficult than drawing them up. It took many years and a number of major revisions before an established system of school education was in place nationwide.<\/p>\n

It was in the years around 1900 that the structures and organisation of the school education system reached the state that would endure, in broad outline, until 1945. There was a landmark year for selective secondary education in 1899. A revised Middle School Ordinance (ch\u016bgakk\u014d rei) was issued, as was a new Girls\u2019 High School Ordinance (k\u014dt\u014d jogakk\u014d rei) and a new Vocational School Ordinance (jitsugy\u014d gakk\u014d rei). Meanwhile, enrolment at elementary school had been increasing steadily, and improved further as the Ministry of Education made the first four years of elementary education compulsory, and enforced attendance more rigorously. By 1907, attendance was recorded at almost 90 percent. In that year, a revised Elementary School Ordinance extended compulsory education at ordinary elementary school (jinj\u014d sh\u014dgakk\u014d) to six years.<\/p>\n

In the first decades of the twentieth century, many children left school at 12. However, the proportion continuing their education steadily increased as economic development continued, helped by the boom during the First World War. By 1920, about 65 percent of ordinary elementary graduates seem to have been continuing their education, and this rose to about 80 percent by 1930. It was most common to continue to two (occasionally three) years at higher elementary school (k\u014dt\u014d sh\u014dgakk\u014d). Academically able children whose families could afford the school fees could apply to a variety of selective secondary schools, which are discussed on separate pages of this website. Other alternatives for talented children were to apply to teacher training school (shihan gakk\u014d \u2013 also known as \u2018normal school\u2019) or army cadet school (rikugun y\u014dnen gakk\u014d). There were separate teacher training schools for boys and girls, which could be entered at 15, or later, 14; elementary school teaching was a popular career choice for academically able girls, and almost a third of elementary school teachers were women as early as 1912. Moreover, there were no tuition fees at teacher training schools. Entry to the three-year programme at the army cadet schools (at 13 to 16 years old) was extremely competitive; school fees were reduced for the sons of army officers.<\/p>\n

Outside the minority who entered a selective secondary school, a teacher training school, or a cadet school, the majority of Japanese adolescents were likely to enter the workforce not later than 14, as discussed on a separate page of this website. A minority attended part-time supplementary vocational schools (jitsugy\u014d hosh\u016b gakk\u014d) while working, and some whose educational aspirations outran their financial resources studied using the \u2018lecture notes\u2019 (k\u014dgiroku) of middle school and other programmes that were commercially published. It also seems to have been common for girls to be sent to learn sewing (usually Japanese sewing) with private sewing teachers in the local area. Sewing was considered an essential household skill for women, and could also be a valuable source of income, either through piecework or teaching. Though it was taught to girls in elementary school lessons, it seems that further teaching was often thought to be required.<\/p>\n

Kindergartens for pre-school age children were available in cities, but seem mainly to have been attended by better-off children. However, some interviewees talked of going to \u2018Sunday school\u2019 (Nichiy\u014d gakk\u014d) prior to elementary school; this was not a religious class, but activities like drawing and singing, supervised by elementary school teachers at the school itself. \u2018Sunday school\u2019 appears to have been a local initiative.<\/p>\n

At the other end of the educational system were higher educational institutions. The most prestigious were the higher schools (k\u014dt\u014d gakk\u014d) and the Imperial Universities to which they led. By the end of the 1930s, there were nine Imperial universities in all, seven in Japan proper (Tokyo, Kyoto, Tohoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido, Nagoya, and Osaka) and two in the colonies (Keij\u014d [Seoul] and Taihoku [Taipei]). There were also private universities, which had mainly been granted university status after the First World War; the most prestigious were Keio and Waseda. Other public institutions of higher education included the Higher Commercial Schools in Tokyo and Kobe (now Hitotsubashi and Kobe Universities) and Higher Normal Schools (teacher training colleges) for men and women, including the institutions that are today Tsukuba University and Ochanomizu University. Also highly prestigious were the Army Academy (rikugun shikan gakk\u014d) and Naval Academy (kaigun heigakk\u014d), particularly the latter, due to its smaller intake. In addition, there was a proliferation of specialist training colleges (senmon gakk\u014d), most of which would attain university status after the Second World War.<\/p>\n

Peter Cave<\/p>\n

How to Cite This Source<\/h3>\n

Peter Cave, \u2018Education in Japan, 1900-1945: An Overview\u2019, in Childhood, Education and Youth in Modern Japan [add URL and access date].<\/p>\n

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